Definition and Examples of Universal Grammar

Universal grammar is the theoretical or hypothetical system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate. Since the 1980s, the term has often been capitalized.  The term is also known as  Universal Grammar Theory. Linguist  Noam Chomsky  explained,  [U]niversal grammar is taken to be the set of properties, conditions, or whatever that constitute the initial state of the language learner, hence the basis on which knowledge of a language develops. (Rules and Representations. Columbia University Press, 1980) The concept is connected to the ability  of  children to be able to learn their native language. Generative grammarians  believe that the human species evolved a genetically  universal grammar  common to all peoples and that the variability in modern languages is basically on the surface only, wrote  Michael Tomasello. (Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press, 2003) And Stephen Pinker elaborates thusly: In cracking the code of language...childrens minds must be constrained to pick out just the right kinds of generalizations from the  speech  around them....It is this line of reasoning that led Noam Chomsky to propose that  language acquisition  in children is the key to understanding the nature of  language,  and that children must be equipped with an innate  Universal Grammar: a set of plans for the grammatical machinery that powers all human languages. This idea sounds more controversial than it is (or at least more controversial than it should be) because the logic of  induction  mandates that children make  some  assumptions about how language works in order for them to succeed at learning a language at all. The only real controversy is what these assumptions consist of: a blueprint for a specific kind of rule system, a set of abstract principles, or a mechanism for finding simple patterns (which might also be used in learning things other than language). ( The Stuff of Thought. Viking, 2007) Universal grammar is not  to be confused with universal language, noted Elena Lombardi, or with the  deep structure of language, or even with grammar itself (The Syntax of Desire, 2007).  As Chomsky has observed, [U]niversal grammar is not  a grammar, but rather a theory of grammars, a kind of metatheory or schematism for grammar (Language and Responsibility, 1979). History and Background The concept of a  universal grammar  (UG) has been traced to the observation of Roger Bacon, a 13th-century Franciscan friar, and philosopher, that all languages are built upon a common grammar. The expression was popularized in the 1950s and 1960s by Chomsky and other linguists. Components that are considered to be universal include the notion that words can be classified into different groups, such as being nouns or verbs and that sentences follow a particular structure. Sentence structures may be different between languages, but each language has some kind of framework so that speakers can understand each other vs. speaking gibberish. Grammar rules, borrowed words, or idioms of a particular language by definition are not universal grammar. Challenges and Criticisms Of course, any theory in an academic setting will have challenges, comments, and criticisms by others in the field; such as it is with peer review and the academic world, where people build on the body of knowledge through writing academic papers and publishing their opinions. Swarthmore College linguist K. David Harrison noted in The Economist,  I and many fellow linguists would estimate that we only have a detailed scientific description of something like 10% to 15% of the worlds languages, and for 85% we have no real documentation at all. Thus it seems premature to begin constructing grand theories of universal grammar. If we want to understand universals, we must first know the particulars. (Seven Questions for K. David Harrison. Nov. 23, 2010) And Jeff Mielke finds some aspects of  universal  grammar theory to be illogical: [T]he  phonetic  motivation for  Universal Grammar is extremely  weak. Perhaps the most compelling case that can be made is that phonetics, like  semantics, is part of the grammar and that there is an implicit assumption that if  the syntax  is rooted in Universal Grammar, the rest should be too. Most of the evidence for UG is not related to  phonology, and phonology has more of a guilt-by-association status with respect to innateness. (The Emergence of Distinctive Features. Oxford University Press, 2008) Iain McGilchrist disagrees with Pinkner and took the side of children learning a language just through imitation, which is a behaviorist approach, as opposed to the Chomsky theory of the poverty of the stimulus:   [I]t is uncontroversial that the existence of a universal grammar such as Chomsky conceived it is highly debatable. It remains remarkably speculative 50 years after he posited it, and is disputed by many important names in the field of linguistics. And some of the facts are hard to square with it. Languages across the world, it turns out, use a very wide variety of syntax to structure sentences. But more importantly, the theory of universal grammar is not convincingly compatible with the process revealed by developmental psychology, whereby children actually acquire language in the real world. Children certainly evince a remarkable ability to grasp spontaneously the conceptual and psycholinguistic shapes of speech, but they do so in a far more holistic, than analytic, way. They are astonishingly good imitators—note, not copying machines, but imitators. (The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. Yale University Press, 2009)

Energy And Energy Of Energy - 1140 Words

Scientifically, energy is defined as the ability to do work. While there are many forms of energy, they can be grouped into two categories:Potential energy, or stored energy; and Kinetic energy, or energy is a form of potential energy and it is possessed by things such as food, fuels, and batteries. Energy is the ability to cause changes in matter. It can exist in many different forms. Energy can change from one form to another. There are six forms of energy: mechanical, chemical, electrical, light, thermal, and sound energy. Another form of energy is nuclear energy. Mechanical energy is the energy of movement. Chemical energy is energy that is stored in the bonds between the atoms of compounds. If the bonds are broken, the energy is†¦show more content†¦There are many ways to produce energy like using your muscles or starting a fire.We can use up a source of energy, or we can store energy to use at a later time. Some sources of energy will last forever. Even gravity can be a source of energy Mass and energy are closely related.Any object that has mass when stationary in a frame of reference also has an equal amount of energy whose form is called rest energy in that frame and any additional energy acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase an object s mass. Also light can carry energy through empty space. Light energy travels from the sun to earth across empty space in the form of electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic waves are made of magnetic fields. Energy cannot be created or destroyed that is the Law conservation of energy. Energy does not appear or disappear. Some systems may be closed or open isolated. Open system is energy and matter are exchanged with surroundings. Closed system is energy but matter is not exchanged. Isolated system is neither energy or matter is exchanged. Temperature and energy are also related. Temperature of a substance is proportional to the average kinetic energy. All particles have kinetic energy. All particles in a subs tance are constantly moving. The kelvin scale is based on absolute zero. Temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy. When two objects that areShow MoreRelatedEnergy Of Energy : Energy1954 Words   |  8 PagesEnergy: Energy is the ability to work. The definition of work is every time a force is exerted on something through a distance. An in depth explanation would define doing work as mechanical energy. An example of one of the many different types of energy is when you kick a soccer ball you are using the maximum amount of kinetic energy and the least amount of potential energy. The energy formula is Power multiplied by time which is then divided by joules (a way of measuring energy) which is watts multipliedRead MoreEnergy Of Energy And Energy Consumption931 Words   |  4 PagesEnergy Preliminary Evaluation The main aim of the energy category is to reduce energy consumption. 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Cypop5 Task 1 Free Essays

Ella O’Gorman Task 1 As a home-based child-carer I would like to provide parent’s/carers with information outlining the following: Current Legislation. Role of the Regulatory Bodies. Legislation is a very important part of my practise. We will write a custom essay sample on Cypop5 Task 1 or any similar topic only for you Order Now It ensures that I provide a high standard of care for the children that attend my setting. There are several pieces of legislation that affect the early years and childcare sector but I have outlined ones that I feel are most important and relevant to my work as a home-based child-care provider. Children Act (1989) -This act aims to improve effective local authorities working to safeguard and promote children’s well being and support vulnerable children. The act aims to ensure that the welfare of the children is paramount, working in partnerships with parents to protect children from harm. In 1999 a document entitled ‘working together to safeguard children’ was published, it reinforces the message that all professionals have a duty of care towards children who are at risk of harm. Children Act (2004) -This act was to improve communication between various organisations, after the terrible death of Victoria Climbe highlighted the lack of communication between organ isations responsible for her safety. As a result of this A Green paper entitled ‘Every Child Matters’ was published. This paper lists five outcomes which were identified in consultation with children and young people. The five outcomes are as follows: 1. Being Healthy: enjoying good physical and mental health and living a healthy lifestyle. 2. Staying Safe: being protected from harm and neglect. 3. Enjoying Achieving: getting the most out of life and developing the skills for adulthood. 4. Making a Positive Contribution: being involved with the community and society and not engaging in anti-social or offending behaviour. 5. Economic well-Being: not being prevented by economic disadvantage from achieving their full potential. * Childcare Act (2006) – This act ensures that childcare in England is regulated and has replaced part of the children act (1989). The act covers registration and inspection which are carried out by the regulatory body Ofsted. This is when the EYFS was introduced. They inspect the standard of education and care framework for the early years and general childcare registers ensuring that the five outcomes set out in the children act (2004) and all Ofsted registry requirements are being met. * SENDA (2001) – Special Educational Needs Disability Act – This act is intended to prevent the unfair treatment of individuals. The act requires reasonable provisions to ensure providers adopt an inclusive approach towards children with disabilities or special needs and everybody is treated equally. * EYFS (2012) – Early Years Foundation Stage -This comes from the childcare act 2006. It first came into effect on the 1st of Sept 2008 and then was reformed to be effective from 1st Sept 2012 to take forward the Governments changes to the 2008 framework. This framework covers both the learning and development and the welfare requirements and is mandatory for all early years providers on the Early Years Register. The learning and development requirements are given legal force by an Order made under section 39(1)(a) of the Childcare Act 2006. The safeguarding and welfare requirements are given legal force by Regulations under Section 39(1)(b) of the Childcare Act 2006. Ella O’Gorman The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) sets the standards that all early years providers must meet to ensure that all children learn and develop well and are kept healthy and safe. It promotes teaching and learning to ensure children’s ‘school readiness’ it also gives children the broad range of knowledge and skills that provide the right foundation for good futu re progress through school and life. The EYFS seeks to provide the following: * Quality and consistency – so that every child makes good progress and no child gets left behind. A secure foundation – through learning and development opportunities which are planned around the needs and interests of individuals which are assessed and reviewed regularly. * Partnership working – of practitioners and with parent’s/carer’s. * Equality of opportunity – by anti-discriminatory practise ensuring every child is included and supported. The EYFS has four guiding principles that help shape practise in the early years settings. These are: * Unique child as every child is and is constantly learning, they can be resilient, capable, confident and self-assured; Positive relationships as all children learn to be strong and independent through these; * Enabling Environments help children to develop well, their experiences respond to their individual needs and the re should be a strong partnership between practitioners and parents/carers; * Children develop and learn in different ways at different rates The framework covers education and care for all children including special educational needs and disabilities. As mentioned before the EYFS covers both learning and development and the welfare of children. Learning and Development Requirements: This section defines what providers must do in partnership with parents/carers. The learning and development requirements compromise: * The seven areas of learning and development and the educational programmes; * The early learning goals, which are the knowledge, skills, and understanding that all young children should have gained by the end of reception year; * The assessment requirements (when and how practitioners must assess children’s achievements and how they share this progress with parents/carers). The seven areas of learning are divided into two areas. All areas of learning and development are important and inter-connected. Three areas are crucial for igniting children’s curiosity and enthusiasm for learning and for building their capacity to learn, form relationships and thrive. Prime Areas – the three areas cover; * Communication and language – The early learning goals for this area are; Listening and attention Understanding Speaking 2 Ella O’Gorman * Physical Development – The early learning goals for this area are; Moving and Handling Health and Self Care * Personal, Social and Emotional Development – The early learning goals for this area are; Making relationships Self-confidence and self awareness Managing feelings and behaviour Providers must also support children in four areas, through which the three prime areas are strengthened Specific Areas – The four areas are; * Literacy – The early learning goals for this area are; Reading Writing * Mathematics – The early learning goals for this area are; Numbers Shape, space and measure * Understanding of the world – The early learning goals for this area are; People and communities The world Technology * Expressive Arts and Design – The early learning goals for this area are; Exploring and using media and materials Being imaginative Assessment – at the end of the EYFS. Practitioners are expected to complete an EYFS profile on each child. The profile provides parents/carers and teachers with a well rounded picture of a child’s knowledge, understanding and abilities. The profile must reflect ongoing observation and each child’s development must be assessed against the early learning goals. Practitioners must indicate whether children are meeting expected levels of development, or if they are exceeding expected levels, or not yet reaching expected levels (emerging). Safeguarding and Welfare Requirements: This section defines what providers must do to help children develop in a safe and secure environment. These cover: * Safeguarding and Promoting Children’s Welfare – Always working to promote children’s welfare and their good health and the way in which their behaviour is managed. * Suitable people – Making sure that all adults looking after children or having unsupervised access are suitable to do so, qualifications and training and adult: child ratios. Childminders are responsible. Ella O’Gorman * Suitable premises – Maintaining the safety and suitability of outdoor/indoor spaces, furniture, equipment and toys. Also health and safety law, and need to register as a food business and deal with food/hygiene appropriately. * Organisation – The planning and organisation of systems. Ensure that all receive an enjoyable and challenging learning and development experience that meets children’s in dividual needs. Documentation – The records, policies and procedures needed for safe and efficient management of the business and to meet the needs of the children. * Race relations Act (1976) amended in 2000- Childcare providers are required to produce a policy on racial equality and to actively encourage positive relationships between members of different racial backgrounds. * Education Act (1997) – This act incorporates all previous acts since 1944 into one act. Set a time frame on the legal process for identifying and assessing a child’s needs as set out in the Code of Practise. Education Act (1981) – This act was the first official recognition of: Parent’s rights regarding children’s education and special educational needs. * Education Act (1993) – This was a code of practice to be published for children with special educational needs. Parents of children under 2yrs have the right to ask for a child to be formally assessed. * Fam ily Law Act (1996) – This act sets out the guidance relating to safeguarding children. * UNCRC (1989) – United Nations Convention of the Rights of Children – This reinforces children’s rights all over the world. It gives children and young people over 40 major rights, some include the right to a family life, the right to be protected from all types of violence, the right to be healthy, the right to have a say and to be taken seriously and the right to have an education that helps you grow as a person. The UNCRC gives extra rights to children in very difficult circumstances, including children in trouble with the law and refugee and asylum seeking children. * Data Protection Act (1998) – This act Controls how your personal information is used. As child carers we must not pass on information about the families we work with. (except in cases of safeguarding). Personal information should be kept safely locked away. * Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) Regulations (1995) – This act sets out basic hygiene requirements. It’s considered good practise for childminders to hold a Basic Food Hygiene Certificate. * Health Protection Agency Act (2004) – A UK-Wide public body dedicated to protecting people’s health. * Public Health (Control of Disease) Act (1984) – This act covers the notification and exclusion periods for certain infectious diseases. RIDDOR (1995) – Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations – This specifies certain accidents and incidents that must be reported by law. * COSHH (2002) – Care of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations – This deals with the identification, storage and use of potentially harmful substances such as cleaning fluids. There is more legislation that I use in my work. I have given a brief description of each one that I feel is important for my home based setting, others are listed below: If you would like to know about these in more detail please let me know. Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations (1981) * Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations (1997) * Toys (Safety) Regulations (1995) 4 Ella O’Gorman The Regulatory Body also has a very important impact on the way I run my home-based setting. Home-based child-carers must be registered with the regulatory body for their country before they can care for other people’s children in their home. All the regulatory bodies publish requirements, or standards and procedures that childminders have to meet in order to become registered. In England there are five general welfare requirements: * Safeguarding and promoting children’s welfare * Suitable people * Suitable premises, environment and equipment * Organisation * Documentation Regulatory bodies in the UK * England – Ofsted. * Wales – Care and social services Inspectorate Wales (CSSIW) Standards. * Scotland – Scottish Commission for the Regulation of Care. * Northern Ireland – Local Health and Social Services Trust. The role of Ofsted is to use the registration systems in place so that they can make sure that home-based child-carers: * Meet the requirements in the Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. * Are suitable people to provide care for children. * Can promote an environment where children are well cared for, are safe and their learning and development are catered for. Ofsted have processes and systems to control home-based childcare in the following ways. * Registration – This covers checks on all adults who will be on the premises at the time of operation. Inspection – Once registered inspectors carry out checks on the service you offer. This is written as a report and must be offered to parent’s. * Investigation – Complaints or concern is followed by an investigation into your service to make sure you comply with the welfare requirements. * Enforcement – If requirements aren’t met then Ofsted can take action against you. When childcare providers apply for registration there are 3 different registers. 1. Early Years Register – To care for children from birth to 5 years 11 months. This is compulsory. 2. Ofsted Childcare Register – To care for 6 – 8 years. This is compulsory. 3. Voluntary Register – For over 8 years. This is not compulsory. It is usual for childminders to go on all 3 registers so that they are covering the total age range. If you are on more than one register you have to make sure you can meet the requirements for all of the registers and show that you can meet the needs of the age range of children you are caring for. To become registered other requirements by Ofsted would be: * To be peadiatric first aid trained. * Have an enhanced CRB check 5 Ella O’Gorman * Be qualified at a minimum of level 2 in an area of work relevant to childcare * Suitable insurance cover. Pre-registration visit to check safety of premises. As well as being the regulatory body you need to register with, Ofsted would also require that you inform them of matters affecting the welfare of children: * If protection issues arise at your setting. * Any incident of food poisoning affecting two or more children. * Any serious accident or injury to, or death of any child while receiving childcare. Having legislation and regulating bodies in place ensures that children receive a high standard of care in all settings that a child attends away from home. This helps give you as parents/carers reassurance when leaving their children. Task 2 Accidents, illness and emergencies policy I aim to keep children safe when they are in my care. However accidents and illnesses can happen very quickly. I promote good health and take necessary steps to prevent accidents and the spread of infection and illness. My premises have been checked and they meet the requirements set out in the Early Years Foundation Stage in England. I also review, update and practise my safety routines regularly including fire drills. As a registered childminder, I am legally required to have a valid first aid certificate. I can administer basic first aid treatment on children as I last did my training in Nov 2012. I have a first aid box which is clearly labelled and kept in the cupboard in my kitchen which is easily accessible. I keep all parents contact details with the first aid box. All accidents will be recorded in an accident book, which is available to parent’s who will also be expected to sign a copy. I have a written permission form signed by parent’s kept in each child’s file, seeking emergency treatment for their child if needed. I check all equipment regularly for safety, and to make sure they are used using their correct guidelines and manufacturer’s instructions. All equipment is cleaned after use, either on a daily or weekly basis depending on type of equipment. I must notify Ofsted of any serious accidents, illnesses or injuries or the death of a child whilst in my care and any action I have taken within 14 days. If your child becomes ill during the childminding period or I suspect they have an infectious disease. I will contact parent’s to collect the child. Ensure that the child is kept home until they have been well for an agreed amount of time. Please refer to sickness exclusion period table which is included. 6 Ella O’Gorman I have an arranged emergency back-up should an emergency arise. Procedure To ensure that this policy is implemented, these are the steps that I follow: All parent’s/carers are made aware of my policies and procedures during the settling in period. They will also be made aware of their responsibilities of collecting their child when they are sick. I go through all the paperwork with them and parent’s/carers sign copies to say that they agree. If concerns are raised adaptions can then be made. If there is an accident: I will comfort and reassure the injured child while making sure all other children are safe and well, in a secure place where I can see them. If possible I will deal with the accident/injury, if it requires further expertise I will ring 999 for help. If I have to attend hospital with the injured child, I will either bring the other children with me, or call my emergency back-up cover. This will be another registered childminder or known responsible adult. These people will be known to you and are named below. If I manage to deal with the accident myself, I will then contact the child’s parent’s/carers immediately. If I accompany the child to hospital, I will contact their parent’s/carers and ask them to meet me at the hospital. If I am not able to contact parents/carers in cases of emergencies then this may be done by emergency back-up cover. You will be expected to collect your child straight away. How to cite Cypop5 Task 1, Essay examples